Essay Read by Constituting America Founder, Actress Janine Turner
The essays in our study reference the following edition of Democracy In America: University of Chicago Press – 1st edition translated by Harvey Mansfield and Delba Winthrop. Today’s essay references pages 496 – 500 (stop at chapter 8 heading) of this edition of Democracy in America.
Imagine living in a community with the following problems: the senior living center needs $1 million for updates, Main Street needs to be revitalized, and debates need to be organized to elect a new mayor. Now imagine a community where these problems are solved, not by government, but by the voluntary association of citizens: the chamber of commerce organizes local business owners to invest in the senior living center, churches of various denominations hold a day of service to revitalize Main Street, and delegates from both political parties form a debate commission.
According to De Tocqueville, communities like this are not only good because they may be effective at addressing political and civic problems (in truth, one can imagine that such “free labor” comes in various degrees of quality). Far more important is that the citizens in such communities are, through association with their fellows, developing the skills and habits necessary for democracies to remain happy, prosperous, and free.
In considering chapter 7, it may be helpful to step back and recall one of the major questions De Tocqueville is asking and the thesis he proposes in response: Question 1: When all citizens are free and equal, how do they learn to self-govern in exercising liberty, putting aside their own good for the common good?
Thesis 1: Through governing and associating directing with their fellows, democratic citizens both a) see the effects of exercising their liberty on others and b) develop the skills and habits (or virtues) that free democratic societies require. Chapters 1-7 of the current section constituting the evidence for De Tocqueville’s thesis. In Chapters 1-4, De Tocqueville has warned his readers regarding the danger of individualism: self-absorbed citizens focus on their own good and are isolated and weak. If unchecked, individualism increases the relative strength and opportunities of would-be despots. In Chapters 4 and 5, De Tocqueville proposed voluntary associations as a remedy to the problem of individualism because associations draw citizens outside themselves and into community with others; in doing so, citizens are also empowered politically.
Here in Chapter 7, De Tocqueville continues his evaluation of associations as an antidote to individualism and a bulwark against despotism by addressing the relationship between political associations on the one hand, and the civic associations on the other. In particular, De Tocqueville will argue that civic associations and political associations have an interdependent relationship: as citizens associate to solve local, common problems, they are (perhaps, unwittingly) developing the skills and habits for addressing great political problems in the future.
Conversely, the character of political associations is such that they are peculiarly situated to “develop” and “perfect” civic associations (496). While citizens may “fancy” themselves independent and self-sufficient in civil life, they must see that political associations are necessary for getting things done in politics. Individually, citizens are simply too weak; it takes political associations filled with many individuals to accomplish political aims. Thus, political associations both foster “[a] desire to unite” and teach “the art of doing it.” When practiced, they develop the “habit of association.”
Seen in this light, a principal good of political associations is that, because they are more immediately or obviously necessary in a democracy, they are the most natural first exposure of democratic citizens to the skills and habits of associational life: an association draws “a multitude of individuals outside themselves at the same time… [and] brings them together.” These relationships then serve as catalysts for future associations: “They meet each other once and learn to find each other always”.
Finally, underlying De Tocqueville’s discussion in Chapter 7 is an important second-order question about possibilities and limits of freedom of association: Question 2: Can the freedom to associate be permitted in some cases, such as economic endeavors, while being prohibited in others, such as political ones, without losing “all the goods” that associational life can offer?
[Footnote: In applying this to our world in the first quarter of the 21 st Century, one cannot help but think of the People’s Republic of China, where the Communist Party has sought to do just this. Despite the Chinese Constitution guaranteeing that “Citizens… shall enjoy freedom of… association,” the Party has, in practice, encouraged some economic associations while prohibiting political ones that do not toe the party line.” According to De Tocqueville, civic associational life will not thrive in China until political associations are permitted.]
Thesis 2: Political associations and civic associations are interdependent, and limiting some associations, such as political ones, will have a detrimental chilling effect on associational life and the development of the civic habits they engender.
While the prospect of limiting the freedom of association may seem foreign, even reprehensible to us, we must recall that even in contemporary America we see association as a right with proper limits: associating for criminal purposes, such as a gang or terrorist organization, is clearly beyond the pale. In Germany today, neo-Nazi political parties are still banned. How much more may De Tocqueville, situated as he is in the aftermath of the French Revolutions of 1789 and 1830 and at the cusp of further political unrest in 1848, should consider the deleterious necessity of imposing some restrictions on freedom of association.
Yet despite his circumstances, De Tocqueville’s response is stark. While extreme circumstances may necessitate limiting some political associations, it comes at a cost: less political associations, less civic associations, and less virtues.
Robert J. Burton is the Tocqueville Assistant Professor of Civic Thought and Leadership within the Department of History and Political Science and director of the Civic Thought and Leadership Initiative (CTLI) within UVU’s Center for Constitutional Studies.
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John Bicknell was a journalist for 30 years, as a reporter, editor, columnist, and opinion writer in Florida and Washington, D.C. He is the author of three books – America 1844: Religious Fervor, Westward Expansion and the Presidential Election That Transformed the Nation, Lincoln’s Pathfinder: John C. Fremont and the Violent Election of 1856, and The Pathfinder and the President: John C. Fremont, Abraham Lincoln, and the Battle for Emancipation –and was a senior editor of the 2016, 2018, 2020, and 2022 editions of The Almanac of America Politics.
Robert E. Wright is a lecturer in economics at Central Michigan University. He previously taught economics at the University of Virginia, New York University, and Augustana University. He is the (co)author of 25 books, including, most recently, FDR’s Long New Deal: A Public Choice Perspective (Palgrave, 2024) and Liberty Lost: The Rise and Demise of Voluntary Association in America Since Its Founding (AIER, 2023)
Benjamin Slomski is an Assistant Professor of Political Science and Campus Pre-Law Advisor at Purdue University Fort Wayne. He earned his PhD from Baylor University and his teaching and research focus on American political thought, constitutional law, and political institutions. He previously taught at Ashland University, Tarleton State University, and Baylor University.
Jonathan Yudelman is Assistant Professor of Political Theory in Intellectual Foundations at UATX. He holds a Ph.D. in Political Science from Boston College and from 2020-2024 held postdoctoral positions at Princeton, Harvard, Baylor, and Arizona State University. His current research focuses on early modern political theory, the idea of progress, sources of political authority, and the intersection of politics and religion.
J. Eric Wise is a partner in the law firm of Alston & Bird.
Trevor Shelley is Assistant Teaching Professor and Associate Director of Graduate Studies at the School of Civic and Economic Thought and Leadership, at Arizona State University. He is author of Liberalism and Globalization: Montesquieu, Tocqueville, and Manent (Notre Dame, 2020), co-editor of Citizenship and Civic Leadership in America (Lexington, 2022) and of Renewing America’s Civic Compact (Lexington, 2023), and author of various book chapters and articles on political theory.
Matthew Van Hook received his doctoral degree in political science from the University of Notre Dame with a focus on political theory, constitutional studies and American political thought. He also holds a master’s degree in security studies from the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, California. Prior to joining the Torrey Honors College faculty, Van Hook served on active duty as an Air Force pilot and political science professor at his alma mater, the US Air Force Academy. His research and published work ranges from the statesmanship of Abraham Lincoln to politics and law in the novels of Harper Lee. 
Zachary K. German is an assistant professor in the School of Civic and Economic Thought and Leadership at Arizona State University. 
Jack Fitzhenry is a Legal Fellow in the Edwin Meese III Center for Legal and Judicial Studies.
David Lewis Schaefer is professor emeritus of political science at the College of the Holy Cross. He has written and edited numerous works on political philosophy in general, as well as on American political thought. His most notable works include The Political Philosophy of Montaigne (second edition 2019) and Illiberal Justice: John Rawls vs. the American Political Tradition (2007).
Antonio Sosa is associate director and lecturer at the School of Civic Leadership. In this capacity, he oversees the development of fellowships, conferences, and courses that invite students to reflect on the principles of a liberal society. Prior to joining School of Civic Leadership, Antonio was an adjunct professor at the University of Dallas, where he taught classes on classical political philosophy, the American Founding, modern European history, and the history of liberal arts education. He is primarily interested in the political thought of De Tocqueville, Ortega y Gasset, and Leo Strauss.
Frank M. Reilly is a partner in the Texas law firm of Potts & Reilly, LLP, a Texas judge, and teaches law related political science courses for Texas Tech University.
Dr. Eric Schmidt is an Associate Professor of Political Science at Kentucky Wesleyan College, specializing in political philosophy and American political institutions. He holds a Ph.D. in Political Science and a Master’s in Philosophy from Louisiana State University. His current research focuses on the intersection of political philosophy, civics, and the digital transformation. As head of the Political Science and Legal Studies programs at KWC, Dr. Schmidt enjoys serving as an advisor to students interested in law and public service careers. He resides in Owensboro with his wife and daughters.
Jacob Wolf is Assistant Professor of Politics and a Founding Faculty member of the University of Austin (UATX). He was previously the 2020-2021 Barry Fellow of the James Madison Program at Princeton University. He received his PhD in Political Science from Boston College. His scholarly and popular writings have appeared in The Political Science Reviewer, Perspectives on Political Science, Interpretation, Public Discourse, VoegelinView, and Modern Age Online.
Michael Greve is the author of The Upside-Down Constitution (Harvard UP, 2012), as well as several other books and numerous law review articles, editorials, book reviews, and blog posts. He is a frequent speaker for professional and scholarly organizations and has made many appearances on radio and television. Before joining the law school faculty, Professor Greve served as John G. Searle Scholar at the American Enterprise Institute (AEI), where he specialized in constitutional law, courts, and business regulation. Prior to joining AEI, Greve was founder and director of the Center for Individual Rights, a public interest law firm specializing in constitutional litigation.
Johnson is a former journalist, member of the White House staff under President Gerald Ford, Chief of Staff to House Republican Leader Bob Michel. He has been active in a number of non-profit organizations and served as a media consultant, lobbyist and co-author of two books: Fixing Congress and Surviving Inside Congress. He is married to Thalia Assuras, has five children and four grandchildren.
Troy Kickler is Founding Director of the North Carolina History Project and Editor of northcarolinahistory.org. He holds an M.S. in Social Studies Education from North Carolina A&T State University and a Ph.D. in History from the University of Tennessee.
Andrea Criswell is a wife, mother, and homeschool teacher in the northwest Houston area. Graduating from both Texas Tech University and Asbury Theological Seminary, she teaches Christian Worldview classes. Her passion is helping high school students become responsible young adults who critically think and learn how to solve problems.
An expert on constitutional law, and member of the Southwestern Law School faculty, Professor Joerg W. Knipprath has been interviewed by print and broadcast media on a number of related topics ranging from recent U.S. Supreme Court decisions to presidential succession. He has written opinion pieces and articles on business and securities law as well as constitutional issues, and has focused his more recent research on the effect of judicial review on the evolution of constitutional law. He has also spoken on business law and contemporary constitutional issues before professional and community forums, and serves as a Constituting America Fellow.
Christopher Burkett is Associate Professor of Political Science at Ashland University and Academic Director of the Ashbrook Scholar Program and Academies. He is editor of Ashbrook’s 50 Core American Documents, and has written on the American Founding, Progressivism, and American Foreign Policy. He holds a B.A. from Ashland University, and received his M.A. and Ph.D. from the University of Dallas.
Horace Cooper is a senior fellow at the National Center for Public Policy Research and chairman of Project 21 – the black leadership network
Robert Pence is a Washington D.C. native who attended Maryland University as an undergrad, American University for J.D. and two M.A. degrees, and Yale University from which he received a M.Phil. degree in Italian Language and Literature. President Donald Trump appointed Bob to serve as the American ambassador to Finland; he served in Helsinki from May, 2018 until January, 2021. He served for years on various educational, artistic and philanthropic boards including The Kennedy Center, the Wolftrap Foundation, the World Affairs Council and American University. The is currently a member of boards of George Mason University (VA) and The Gary Sinise Foundation.
Will Morrisey is the author of ten books, including studies of the political thought of the American founders, the American Progressives, Herman Melville’s Moby-Dick, and Shakespeare’s comedies. He has been an editor of Interpretation: A Journal of Political Philosophy for 45 years. He retired from the Politics Department at Hillsdale College in 2015. His articles and reviews may be found on “Will Morrisey Reviews.”
Richard A. Epstein is the inaugural Laurence A. Tisch Professor of Law at NYU School of Law, where he serves as a Director of the Classical Liberal Institute, which he helped found in 2013. He has served as the Peter and Kirstin Bedford Senior Fellow at the Hoover Institution since 2000. Epstein is also the James Parker Hall Distinguished Service Professor of Law Emeritus and a senior lecturer at the University of Chicago.
Ben Peterson is an assistant professor in the Department of Government and Criminal Justice at Abilene Christian University. He writes on a range of public policy issues, drawing from resources in Christian social and political theory, the broader Western tradition of political thought, and contemporary social science. You can find links to his other writings and information about his scholarship on his website.
Paul McNulty is the president of Grove City College. Prior to assuming this position in 2014, he served more than thirty years in Washington, DC as an attorney in public service and private practice. In 2005 he was appointed to the position of Deputy Attorney General by President George W. Bush after serving for more than four years as the United States Attorney for the Eastern District of Virginia where he was a leader in the nation’s response to the terrorist attacks of 9-11. He served for more than ten years in the U.S. House of Representatives including as Chief Counsel for the House Majority Leader, Chief Counsel for the Subcommittee on Crime, and Counsel to the Committee on Standards of Official Conduct. Mr. McNulty also led the corporate compliance and investigations practices at the global law firm Baker McKenzie.
Stephen Tootle is Professor of History at the College of Sequoias in Visalia California and Honored Visiting Graduate Faculty at Ashland University. His reviews, articles, and essays have appeared in National Review, the Claremont Review of Books, Presidential Studies Quarterly, the Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era, and his hometown newspaper. He hosts a weekly podcast/webcast called “Tootle Talk.”
Val Crofts began his teaching career in 2001 at Westosha Central High School in Paddock Lake, Wisconsin, and is currently employed as the Chief Education and Programs Officer at the American Village in Montevallo, Alabama. He previously taught at Milton High School in Milton, Wisconsin, for 17 years and worked as a teaching consultant for the Wisconsin Virtual School for nine years.
Tom Hand is the visionary behind 
Jeff Broadwater’s publications include Jeffferson, Madison, and the Making of the Constitution (2019); James Madison: A Son of Virginia and a Founder of the Nation (2012); and George Mason, Forgotten Founder (2006). He also co-edited, with Troy Kickler, North Carolina’s Revolutionary Founders (2019). He currently serves as the book review editor for the Journal of the North Carolina Association of Historians.
Jason W. Stevens is Assistant Professor of Political Science at Ashland University, where he teaches political thought and history courses with fields of expertise in the American Founding, Abraham Lincoln, and political philosophy. He is also Co-Director of the Ashbrook Scholar program.
Brenda Hafera is the Assistant Director and Senior Policy Analyst at The Heritage Foundation’s Simon Center for American Studies.
Joseph A. Ledford is a Hoover Fellow at the Hoover Institution at Stanford University.
Paul Carrese is a Professor in the School of Civic & Economic Thought and Leadership at Arizona State University, and its founding Director, 2016-2023. Formerly he was a professor at the U.S. Air Force Academy and co-founded its honors program blending liberal arts education and leadership education. He teaches and publishes on the American founding, American constitutional and political thought, civic education, and American grand strategy. He has held fellowships at Oxford University (Rhodes Scholar); Harvard University; the University of Delhi (Fulbright fellow); and James Madison Program, Princeton University; and currently is a Senior Fellow of the Jack Miller Center for Teaching America’s Founding Principles and History.
Roberta (Bobbi) Herzberg is a Distinguished Senior Fellow for the F. A. Hayek Program for Advanced Study in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics and a Senior Research Fellow at the Mercatus Center at George Mason University and Emerita Associate Professor in political science at Utah State University (USU), where she served as department head and administrative director of The Institute of Political Economy. Dr. Herzberg currently serves as president of the Society for Development of Austrian Economics and was president of the Public Choice Society from 2014-2016. Dr. Herzberg received her Ph.D. in political economy from Washington University in St. Louis. She writes and speaks regularly on public policy, public choice, institutional analysis, civil society, and the Bloomington School.
James C. Clinger is an emeritus professor in the Department of Political Science and Sociology at Murray State. For many years, he was the director of the Master of Public Administration Program at Murray State. He now serves as an on-line adjunct instructor for any university willing to hire him and as a substitute teacher for the Henry County (Tennessee) School System.
Michael C. Maibach is a Trustee and Managing Director of the James Wilson Institute and a Distinguished Fellow On American Federalism at Save Our States.
Peter Roff is a contributing editor at Newsweek and a Senior Fellow at several Washington-based public policy organizations.
Joseph M. Knippenberg is Professor of Politics at Oglethorpe University in Brookhaven, GA, where he has taught since 1985.
Marc A. Clauson is Professor of History, Law and Political Economy and Professor in Honors at Cedarville University. Marc holds a PhD from the University of the Orange Free State, SA, Intellectual History and Polity); JD (West Virginia University College of Law, Jurisprudence); MA, ThM (Liberty University, New Testament Studies and Church History); MA (Marshall University, Political Science); BS (Marshall University, Physics); and PhD work (West Virginia University, Economic Theory).
Adam M. Carrington is Associate Professor of Political Science at Ashland University, teaching courses on U.S. political institutions and the intersection of faith and political thought. Previously, he taught in The Van Andel Graduate School of Statesmanship at Hillsdale College, focusing on the U.S. Constitution, Constitutional Law, The American Presidency, and Politics & Literature. His writing has appeared in such popular forums as The Wall Street Journal, The Hill, National Review, and Washington Examiner. His book on the jurisprudence of Justice Stephen Field was published in 2017 by Lexington. Carrington received his B.A. from Ashland University and his M.A. and Ph.D. from Baylor University. He lives in Hillsdale with his wife and their two daughters.
Dr. Robert Brescia is a National Board Certified Teacher (NBCT), serving as Social Studies Department Chair at Permian High School in Odessa, TX. The Governor of Texas re-appointed him to the State Board for Educator Certification (SBEC) for a six-year term. Bob has a doctoral degree with distinction in Executive Leadership from The George Washington University. He also teaches ethics to university students and leadership to organizations.
Christopher C. Burkett is Associate Professor of History and Political Science, and Director of the Ashbrook Scholar Program at Ashland University.
Robert Lowry Clinton is Professor Emeritus at Southern Illinois University Carbondale. He is the author of Marbury v. Madison and Judicial Review, God and Man in the Law: The Foundations of Anglo-American Constitutionalism, and numerous articles in academic and popular publications.
is a former soldier, political activist, and business executive who writes on Substack at Goose & Gander (jaymcconville.substack.com). He is also a fitness trainer and a doctoral candidate at the L. Douglas Wilder School of Government and Public Affairs, Virginia Commonwealth University. Jay has served for more than seven years on Constituting America’s Governing Board of Directors.
Christopher C. Burkett is Associate Professor of History and Political Science, and Director of the Ashbrook Scholar Program at Ashland University.
Gary Porter is Executive Director of the 
Kevin Portteus is Professor of Politics, Director of American Studies, and the Lawrence Fertig Chair in Politics at Hillsdale College.
Amanda Hughes serves as 90-Day Study Director for Constituting America. She is author of a book on faith and voting, Who Wants to Be Free? (WestBow Press). She is a story contributor for the anthologies Loving Moments and Moments with Billy Graham (Grace Publishing). She served as editor of her father’s book, Adventures, Wit & Wisdom: The Life & Times of Charlie Hughes (WestBow Press). Amanda received her B.A. from Texas State University and her M.A. from Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary.
Tony Williams is a Senior Fellow at the Bill of Rights Institute and is the author of six books including Washington and Hamilton: The Alliance that Forged America, with Stephen Knott. Williams is currently writing a book on the Declaration of Independence.
George Landrith is the President of Frontiers of Freedom.
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Joerg W. Knipprath is an expert on constitutional law, and member of the Southwestern Law School faculty. Professor Knipprath has been interviewed by print and broadcast media on a number of related topics ranging from recent U.S. Supreme Court decisions to presidential succession. He has written opinion pieces and articles on business and securities law as well as constitutional issues, and has focused his more recent research on the effect of judicial review on the evolution of constitutional law. He has also spoken on business law and contemporary constitutional issues before professional and community forums, and serves as a Constituting America Fellow.
Andrew Langer is President of the Institute for Liberty, a Fellow with Constituting America, as well as Chairman and Founder of the Institute for Regulatory Analysis and Engagement. IFL is a non-profit advocacy organization focused on advancing free-market and limited government principles into public policy at all levels. IRAE is a non-profit academic and activist organization whose mission is to examine regulations and regulatory proposals, assess their economic and societal impacts, and offer expert commentary in order to create better public policies. Andrew has been involved in free-market and limited-government causes for more than 25 years, has testified before Congress nearly two dozen times, spoken to audiences across the United States, and has taught at the collegiate level.
Scot Faulkner is Vice President of the George Washington Institute of Living Ethics at Shepherd University. He was the Chief Administrative Officer of the U.S. House of Representatives. Earlier, he served on the White House staff. Faulkner provides political commentary for ABC News Australia, Newsmax, and CitizenOversight. He earned a Master’s in Public Administration from American University, and a BA in Government & History from Lawrence University, with studies in comparative government at the London School of Economics and Georgetown University.
Patrick M. Garry is professor of law at the University of South Dakota. He is author of Limited Government and the Bill of Rights and The False Promise of Big Government: How Washington Helps the Rich and Hurts the Poor.
Stephen Tootle is a Professor of History at the College of the Sequoias in Visalia, California and Honored Visiting Graduate Faculty in History and Government at Ashland University in Ashland, Ohio. His writings have appeared in National Review, Presidential Studies Quarterly, The Claremont Review of Books, The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era, and other publications. He gives talks on politics and political history for the Ashbrook Center and the Bill of Rights Institute and is the co-host of The Paper Trail Podcast, a weekly public affairs podcast published by the Sun-Gazette.
James C. Clinger, Ph.D., is an emeritus professor of political science at Murray State University. His teaching and research has focused on state and local government, public administration, regulatory policy, and political economy. His forthcoming co-edited book is entitled Local Government Administration in Small Town America.
Robert E. Wright is a Senior Research Fellow at the American Institute for Economic Research. He is the (co)author or (co)editor of over two dozen major books, book series, and edited collections, including AIER’s The Best of Thomas Paine (2021) and Financial Exclusion (2019). He has also (co)authored numerous articles for important journals, including the American Economic Review, Business History Review, Independent Review, Journal of Private Enterprise, Review of Finance, and Southern Economic Review. Robert has taught business, economics, and policy courses at Augustana University, NYU’s Stern School of Business, Temple University, the University of Virginia, and elsewhere since taking his Ph.D. in History from SUNY Buffalo in 1997.
Will Morrisey is Professor Emeritus of Politics at Hillsdale College, editor and publisher of Will Morrisey Reviews, an online book review publication.
James P. Pinkerton worked in the White House domestic policy offices of Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H.W. Bush and in their 1980, 1984, 1988 and 1992 presidential campaigns. In 2008, he served as a senior adviser to Mike Huckabee’s presidential campaign. From 1996 to 2016, he was a Contributor to the Fox News Channel. A frequent contributor to Breitbart, The Daily Caller, and The American Conservative, he is a senior fellow at the America First Policy Institute. He is finishing a book on directional investment.
Ron Meier is a West Point graduate and Vietnam War veteran. He is a student of American history, with a focus on our nation’s founding principles and culture, the Revolutionary War, and the challenges facing America’s Constitutional Republic in the 20th and 21st centuries.
Tony Williams is a Senior Fellow at the Bill of Rights Institute and is the author of six books including Washington and Hamilton: The Alliance that Forged America, with Stephen Knott. Williams is currently writing a book on the Declaration of Independence.
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J. Eric Wise is a partner in the law firm of Alston & Bird.
Tara Ross
James S. Humphreys is a professor of United States history at Murray State University in Murray, Kentucky. He is the author of a biography of the southern historian, Francis Butler Simkins, entitled Francis Butler Simkins: A Life (2008), published by the University Press of Florida. He is also the editor of Interpreting American History: the New South (2018) and co-editor of the Interpreting American History series, published by the Kent State University Press. 
Benjamin Slomski is Assistant Professor of History and Political Science at Ashland University.
Eric C. Sands is Associate Professor of Political Science and International Affairs at Berry College. He has written a book on Abraham Lincoln and edited a second volume on political parties. His teaching and research interests focus on constitutional law, American political thought, the founding, the Civil War and Reconstruction, and political parties.
Ben Peterson is an assistant professor of political science at Abilene Christian University.
Dan Cotter is Attorney and Counselor at Howard & Howard Attorneys PLLC. He is the author of The Chief Justices, (published April 2019, Twelve Tables Press). He is also a past president of The Chicago Bar Association. The article contains his opinions and is not to be attributed to anyone else.
Essay Read by Constituting America Founder, Actress Janine Turner
Winfield H. Rose, Ph.D., is Distinguished Professor of Political Science Emeritus at Murray State University.
Adam M. Carrington is an Associate Professor of Politics at Hillsdale College. There, he teaches on matters of Constitutional law, American political institutions, and separation of powers. His writing has appeared in such popular forums as The Wall Street Journal, The Hill, National Review, and Washington Examiner. His book on the jurisprudence of Justice Stephen Field was published in 2017 by Lexington. Carrington received his B.A. from Ashland University and his M.A. and Ph.D. from Baylor University. He lives in Hillsdale with his wife and their two daughters.
Josh Herring is Professor of Classical Education at Thales College, where he oversees the development of the Classical Education teacher training program. He also serves as Director of Debate for the Thales Debate Network, and hosts The Optimistic Curmudgeon podcast. He tweets at @TheOptimisticC3.
Bob Brescia, Ed.D. of Odessa is a Teacher of Record for Ector County Independent School District, and an adjunct professor for Wilmington University. He previously served as the Executive Director for The John Ben Shepperd Public Leadership Institute and served as the Head of School for Saint Joseph Academy in Brownsville. He is a board member at Constituting America in Dallas, a member of the Odessa Information & Discussion Group, and an Advisory Board member for Odessa’s Southwest Heritage Credit Union. He is the former chairman of Basin PBS television and the American Red Cross of the Permian Basin and former president of Rotary International – Greater Odessa. He is also a monthly columnist for the American Society for Public Administration in Washington, DC. Brescia has twenty-seven years of military service as a highly decorated Airborne Ranger Cavalry soldier, NCO, and commissioned officer in the United States Army. He received a Bachelor of Arts (summa cum laude) in Civil Government from Norwich University, a Master of Science in Computer Information Systems and a Master of Arts in International Relations from Boston University – European Division, and a Doctor of Education in Executive Leadership with distinction from The George Washington University.
Tom Hand is creator and publisher of Americana Corner. Tom is a West Point graduate, and serves on the board of trustees for the American Battlefield Trust as well as the National Council for the National Park Foundation.
Joseph M. Knippenberg is Professor of Politics at Oglethorpe University in Brookhaven, GA, where he has taught since 1985.
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Jay McConville is a military veteran, management professional, and active civic volunteer currently pursuing a Ph.D. in Public Policy and Administration at the L. Douglas Wilder School of Government and Public Affairs, Virginia Commonwealth University. His studies focus on improving health outcomes through food assistance policy. Prior to beginning his doctoral studies, he held multiple key technology and management positions within the Aerospace and Defense industry, including twice as President and CEO. He now works as a personal trainer and works to improve health and fitness through both his work and study. Jay served in the U.S. Army as an Intelligence Officer, and has also been active in civic and industry volunteer associations, including running for elected office, serving as a political party chairman, and serving multiple terms as President of both his industry association’s Washington DC Chapter and his local youth sports association. Today he serves on the Operating Board of Directors of Constituting America. He holds a Bachelor of Arts in Government from George Mason University, and a Master of Science in Strategic Intelligence from the Defense Intelligence College. Jay lives in Richmond with his wife Susan Ulsamer McConville. They have three children and four grandchildren.
Joerg W. Knipprath is an expert on constitutional law, and member of the Southwestern Law School faculty. Professor Knipprath has been interviewed by print and broadcast media on a number of related topics ranging from recent U.S. Supreme Court decisions to presidential succession. He has written opinion pieces and articles on business and securities law as well as constitutional issues, and has focused his more recent research on the effect of judicial review on the evolution of constitutional law. He has also spoken on business law and contemporary constitutional issues before professional and community forums, and serves as a Constituting America Fellow.
Joerg W. Knipprath is an expert on constitutional law, and member of the Southwestern Law School faculty. Professor Knipprath has been interviewed by print and broadcast media on a number of related topics ranging from recent U.S. Supreme Court decisions to presidential succession. He has written opinion pieces and articles on business and securities law as well as constitutional issues, and has focused his more recent research on the effect of judicial review on the evolution of constitutional law. He has also spoken on business law and contemporary constitutional issues before professional and community forums, and serves as a Constituting America Fellow.
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Dave Kopel
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Jeanne McKinney is an award-winning writer whose focus and passion is our United States active-duty military members and military news. Her Patriot Profiles offer an inside look at the amazing active-duty men and women in all Armed Services, including U.S. Marine Corps, Navy, Army, Air Force, Coast Guard, and National Guard. Reporting includes first-hand accounts of combat missions in Iraq and Afghanistan, the fight against violent terror groups, global defense, tactical training and readiness, humanitarian and disaster relief assistance, next-generation defense technology, family survival at home, U.S. port and border protection and illegal immigration, women in combat, honoring the Fallen, Wounded Warriors, Military Working Dogs, Crisis Response, and much more. Starting in 2012, McKinney has won multiple San Diego Press Club “Excellence in Journalism Awards,” including eight “First Place” honors, as well as multiple second and third place recognition for her Patriot Profiles published printed articles. Including awards for Patriot Profiles military films. During the year 2020, McKinney has written and published dozens of investigative articles in her ongoing fight to preserve America the Republic, the Constitution, and its laws. One such story was selected for use in a legal brief in the national fight for 2020 election integrity.
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Will Morrisey is Professor Emeritus of Politics at Hillsdale College, and Editor and Publisher of Will Morrisey Reviews.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Croly
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Thomas Bruscino is Associate Professor of History in the Department of Military Strategy, Planning, and Operations at the United States Army War College. He holds a Ph.D. in military history from Ohio University and has been a historian at the US Army Center of Military History in Washington, DC and the US Army Combat Studies Institute at Fort Leavenworth, and a professor at the US Army School of Advanced Military Studies. He is the author of A Nation Forged in War: How World War II Taught Americans to Get Along(University of Tennessee Press, 2010), and Out of Bounds: Transnational Sanctuary in Irregular Warfare (CSI Press, 2006), and numerous book chapters. His writings have appeared in the Claremont Review of Books, Army History, The New Criterion, Military Review, The Journal of Military History, White House Studies, War & Society, War in History, The Journal of America’s Military Past, Infinity Journal, Doublethink, Reviews in American History, Joint Force Quarterly, and Parameters.
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Samuel Postell serves as Executive Director of 
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Adam M. Carrington is an Associate Professor of Politics at Hillsdale College. There, he teaches on matters of Constitutional law, American political institutions, and separation of powers. His writing has appeared in such popular forums as The Wall Street Journal, The Hill, National Review, and Washington Examiner. His book on the jurisprudence of Justice Stephen Field was published in 2017 by Lexington. Carrington received his B.A. from Ashland University and his M.A. and Ph.D. from Baylor University. He lives in Hillsdale with his wife and their two daughters.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Francis_Mercer#/media/File:Gov._John_Francis_Mercer_-_Robert_Field_1803.jpg
Andrea Criswell is a wife and mother of four, who teaches homeschool students in northwest Houston. A graduate of Texas Tech University and Asbury Theological Seminary, she teaches Christian Worldview classes, high school biology and a love for the United States Constitution. 
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Tom Hand is creator and publisher of 
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Tony Williams is a Senior Fellow at the Bill of Rights Institute and is the author of six books including Washington and Hamilton: The Alliance that Forged America, with Stephen Knott. Williams is currently writing a book on the Declaration of Independence.
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Joerg W. Knipprath is an expert on constitutional law, and member of the Southwestern Law School faculty. Professor Knipprath has been interviewed by print and broadcast media on a number of related topics ranging from recent U.S. Supreme Court decisions to presidential succession. He has written opinion pieces and articles on business and securities law as well as constitutional issues, and has focused his more recent research on the effect of judicial review on the evolution of constitutional law. He has also spoken on business law and contemporary constitutional issues before professional and community forums, and serves as a Constituting America Fellow.
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George
Tony Williams is a Senior Fellow at the Bill of Rights Institute and is the author of six books including Washington and Hamilton: The Alliance that Forged America with Stephen Knott. Williams is currently writing a book on the Declaration of Independence. 
Library of Congress
Joerg W. Knipprath is an expert on constitutional law, and member of the Southwestern Law School faculty, Professor Knipprath has been interviewed by print and broadcast media on a number of related topics ranging from recent U.S. Supreme Court decisions to presidential succession. He has written opinion pieces and articles on business and securities law as well as constitutional issues, and has focused his more recent research on the effect of judicial review on the evolution of constitutional law. He has also spoken on business law and contemporary constitutional issues before professional and community forums, and serves as a Constituting America Fellow. Read more from Professor Knipprath at: 
Joerg W. Knipprath is an expert on constitutional law, and member of the Southwestern Law School faculty, Professor Knipprath has been interviewed by print and broadcast media on a number of related topics ranging from recent U.S. Supreme Court decisions to presidential succession. He has written opinion pieces and articles on business and securities law as well as constitutional issues, and has focused his more recent research on the effect of judicial review on the evolution of constitutional law. He has also spoken on business law and contemporary constitutional issues before professional and community forums, and serves as a Constituting America Fellow. Read more from Professor Knipprath at: 
Gary Porter is Executive Director of the 
David L. Robbins serves as Public Education Commissioner in New Mexico.
Kyle Scott, PhD, MBA serves on the Board of Trustees for the Lone Star College System and teaches political science at the University of Houston and is an affiliated scholar with the Baylor College of Medicine’s Center for Health Policy and Medical Ethics. Kyle has authored over 70 op-eds, dozens of academic articles and five books, the most recent of which is The Limits of Politics: Making the Case for Literature in Political Analysis. He can be reached at kyle.a.scott@hotmail.com or on Twitter: @kanthonyscott.
John G. McCurdy is Professor of History at Eastern Michigan University. He is the author of Quarters: The Accommodation of the British Army and the Coming of the American Revolution. He regularly teaches courses on early American history.
NationalAtlas.gov
Scot Faulkner is Vice President of the George Washington Institute of Living Ethics at Shepherd University. He was the Chief Administrative Officer of the U.S. House of Representatives. Earlier, he served on the White House staff. Faulkner provides political commentary for ABC News Australia, Newsmax, and CitizenOversight. He earned a Master’s in Public Administration from American University, and a BA in Government & History from Lawrence University, with studies in comparative government at the London School of Economics and Georgetown University.
Steven H. Aden serves as Chief Legal Officer & General Counsel at Americans United for Life. Aden joined Americans United for Life in August 2017, overseeing all legal operations of America’s most effective pro-life organization. Aden is a highly experienced litigator, having appeared in court against Planned Parenthood and the abortion industry dozens of times and appointed by the attorneys general of six states to defend pro-life laws. A prolific author and analyst on sanctity of life issues and constitutional jurisprudence, Aden is admitted to the bars of the District of Columbia, Virginia, and Hawaii (inactive), and is a member of the bars of the U.S. Supreme Court and numerous federal circuit and district courts. He has practiced law since 1990 and earned his J.D. (cum laude) from Georgetown University Law Center and his B.A. from the University of Hawaii.
Library of Congress
Winfield H. Rose, Ph.D., is Distinguished Professor of Political Science Emeritus at Murray State University.
Tara Ross is nationally recognized for her expertise on the Electoral College. She is the author of Why We Need the Electoral College (2019), The Indispensable Electoral College: How the Founders’ Plan Saves Our Country from Mob Rule (2017), We Elect A President: The Story of our Electoral College (2016), and Enlightened Democracy: The Case for the Electoral College (2d ed. 2012). She is also the author of She Fought Too: Stories of Revolutionary War Heroines (2019), and a co-author of Under God: George Washington and the Question of Church and State (2008) (with Joseph C. Smith, Jr.). Her Prager University video, Do You Understand the Electoral College?, is Prager’s most-viewed video ever, with more than 60 million views. 
Ron Meier is a West Point graduate and Vietnam War veteran. He is a student of American history, with a focus on our nation’s founding principles and culture, the Revolutionary War, and the challenges facing America’s Constitutional Republic in the 20th and 21st centuries. Ron won Constituting America’s Senior Essay contest in 2014 and is author of Common Sense Rekindled: A Rejuvenation of the American Experiment, featured on Constituting America’s Recommended Reading List.
Jeanne McKinney is an award-winning writer whose focus and passion is our United States active-duty military members and military news. Her Patriot Profiles offer an inside look at the amazing active-duty men and women in all Armed Services, including U.S. Marine Corps, Navy, Army, Air Force, Coast Guard, and National Guard. Reporting includes first-hand accounts of combat missions in Iraq and Afghanistan, the fight against violent terror groups, global defense, tactical training and readiness, humanitarian and disaster relief assistance, next-generation defense technology, family survival at home, U.S. port and border protection and illegal immigration, women in combat, honoring the Fallen, Wounded Warriors, Military Working Dogs, Crisis Response, and much more. Starting in 2012, McKinney has won multiple San Diego Press Club “Excellence in Journalism Awards,” including eight “First Place” honors, as well as multiple second and third place recognition for her Patriot Profiles published printed articles. Including awards for Patriot Profiles military films. During the year 2020, McKinney has written and published dozens of investigative articles in her ongoing fight to preserve America the Republic, the Constitution, and its laws. One such story was selected for use in a legal brief in the national fight for 2020 election integrity.
